Present Conditions and Perspectives in Art Class (1)

: Educational Reform During the Period from 1977 to 2001 in Japan

 

Mr. Hideshi UDA

 

Associate Professor of Fine Arts Education,

Faculty of Education, Nara University of Education

Takabatake-cho, Nara City, Nara Prefecture, 630-8528, Japan

udah@nara-edu.ac.jp

 

* This paper was presented at the 31^st World INSEA conferenc, New York (August 22, 2002)

 

Key word: Recent educational reform in Japan, Centralism, Course of Study by the Ministry

of Education, Comparative view points between Japan and America, Playful Art Study in

elementary school, Appreciation study in elementary and lower secondary schools, Integrated

Studies.

 

1. Introduction

 

    This paper focuses upon the educational reform underway after 1977 in Japan. Japanese

educational system has been centralized by the Ministry of Education which has considerable

influence upon teachers in public schools. In the last two decades, the Ministry of Education

suggested teaching guidelines and methods in art lessons. And this educational reform

brought both achievement and critical problems in art education. The last two decades will be

divided into two chronological stages as follows for the research convenience.

 

 1,The Period from 1977(Showa 52ed) to 1988(Showa 63rd): Revised Course of Study was

officially announced in 1977(the 5th Course of Study after World War II). Playful Art Study

(Zoukei-asobi) got started in the lower grades of elementary school, which includes playing

with materials and integrated expression based on the experiences.

 

  2,The Period from 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th): Revised Course of Study was

officially announced in 1989(the 6th Course of Study). And new Course of Study was

announced in 1998(the 7th Course of Study) and it was put into effect in April 2002. Playful

Art and appreciation study are emphasized in the both Course of Studies.

 

    The purpose of this research is to analyze this reform and to make basic resources for

proposing good annual teaching programs for students. The overview of this research runs as

follows: to clarify both achievement and critical problems of Playful Art Study, and to

consider the relation of Fine Arts study to Integrated Studies (Life Environment Studies and

"Period for Integrated Study").

 

2.Educational administration in Japan

: Comparison between educational system of Japan and that of the U.S.A.

 

2.1.Centralized educational system

 

    Contrary to the U.S.A where Local administration has independent education system,

Japanese educational system is centralized. All Japanese prefectures use authorized textbooks

under Course of Study by Ministry of Education. Toku (1997) stated this situation as follows 1).

 

    It is unusual that all prefectures use governmentally authorized textbooks under nation-

wide curriculum by Ministry of Education as Japan. Many nations have complicated

background in culture, race, religion and politics. So it is impossible and even dangerous that

those nations have centralized educational systems. Each state (and district) has different

cultural backgrounds, so it is practical that they have independent educational systems under

local administrations. There are major ideas and thoughts in art Education, but each state (and district) interprets them differently in the U.S.A. Each teacher practices art education based on various curriculums.

 

    Japanese educational system is exceptional and unique in the world, so we present this

system at first.

 

2.2. Course of Study by Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture.

 

    The Course of Study is revised by the Ministry of Educationabout every 10 years to

meet changing needs and conditions. After World War II, the Course of Study was officially

announced 7 times. In recent 25years, the Course of Study was revised in 1977(the 5th

Course of Study), 1989(the 6th Course of Study), and 1998 (the 7th Course of Study). The

Minister of Education says that the Course of Study is not a law, but a guideline for teachers.

But this guideline restricts many teachers' behaviors. This is a norm for teachers in public

schools.

 

    Ministry of Education conveys new Course of Study to Prefectural Board of Education,

and supervisors of Prefectural Board convey it to Municipal Board in the training meeting.

And teachers accept it throughout the country. This is, as it were, conveyance of the will and ideas of those who govern to those who are governed.

 

    Private company edits the textbook based on the Course of Study. And the Textbook

Authorization Research Council judges the suitability of each textbook and recommends

suitable ones to the Minister of Education. The Minister authorizes textbooks on the basis of

the Council's recommendations. In compulsory education, municipal boards of education

decide which textbooks to adopt on the basis of the teachers' recommendations. The

textbooks are provided free of charge while the students are at the level of compulsory

education.  

 

    In the next three tables (Table 1-3), we show change of the overall objectives and the

standard number of yearly school hours in these three Revised Course of Studies. The overall

objectives are not changed so much, and they have the outline as follows. 1), To educate

student through two fields, aesthetic expression and appreciation .2), To make student

cultivate the basic ability of creative activities. 3), To make student enjoy the pleasure of the

 

aesthetic expression. 4), To make student cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an

enriched sensibility in the Fine Arts.

 

    The standard number of yearly school hours was decreased sharply, because the five-

day- week school system and Integrated Studies were introduced in the 7th Course of Study 2).

 

In the 5th Course of Study, all grades of elementary school had two school hours (90 minutes) in a week. In the 7th Course of Study, there are two school hours (90 minutes) in lower grades, 1.7 school hours (about 77 minutes) in middle grades, 1.4 school hours (about 64 minutes) in upper grades. From 1st grade to 6th grade, total number of yearly school hours

was reduced by 14.4%. In the 5th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicraft accounted for

 7.2% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities. However in the

7^th Course of Study, Drawing and Handicrafts accounts for 6.7% of number of yearly school

hours in all subjects and other activities.

 

    In a week of the 5th Course of Study, there were two school hours (100 minutes) in 7th

and 8th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in the 9th grade. In 7th Course of Study, there

are about 1.3 school hours (64 minutes) in the 7th grade, one school hour (50 minutes) in 8th

and 9th grade. From 7th grade to 9th grade, total number of yearly school hours was reduced

by 34.3%. In the 5th Course of Study, Fine Arts accounted for 5.6% of number of yearly

school hours in all subjects and other activities, but in the 7th Course of Study, Fine Arts

accounts for 3.9% of number of yearly school hours in all subjects and other activities.

 

    Present conditions of Japanese art education are very hard in number of yearly school

hours. And Life Environment Studies and Integrated Studies are going to overlap with the

contents of Art Study. So art teachers feel uncertain about their future. They sometimes say

"Art Study might not be able to survive as subject in the next Course of Study". But Toku

(1997) stated that most American art teaches work in precarious position. She says that her

condition is harder than Japanese teacher 3). This is because that school subject should have

practical aims and values that everyone recognize in the U.S.A. So American society can't

permit ambiguous expression such as "fostering an enriched sensibility" in the Japanese fine

Arts. People tend to expect that art study should make student acquire something practical.

 

    Ms. Toku taught Fine Art in a private catholic school (St. Matthew School) in the State

of Illinois. She had art class two days in a week, but art class was very short time. She taught

25minutes from 1st grade to 3rd grade, 30minutes in 4th grade, 40minutes in 5th and 6th

grade, 45minutes in 7th and 8th grade. She had to have practical aim and teach the least

contents effectively. Compared with the condition of art education in the U.S.A., ours is

fortunate at least as an educational system. Getting the information from foreign countries,

we have to clarify the status of art study more in the whole curriculum.

 

Table 1

Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1977 (the 5^th Course of Study)

 

1,Overall Objectives

 

Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.

 

Fine Arts in lower secondary schools: To make student develop the ability in aesthetic expression and

appreciation, enjoy the pleasure of creative activities, cultivate an appreciation of art, and foster an enriched

sensibility in the fine art.

 

2. Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools

 

Note:

1. One year has 34 weeks in 1^st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2^nd grade to 9^th grade.

2.There is six-day-week system. One week has 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours

 in lower secondary schools

3.One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes） for

 Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.

4.One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary Schools. In 7^th grade and 8^th grade, we have 2

 school hours（100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 9^th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for

 Fine Arts in a week.

 

Table 2

Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1989 (the 6^th Course of Study)

 

1,Overall Objectives

 

Drawing and Handicrafts in Elementary Schools: To make student cultivate the basic ability of creative

activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of the aesthetic

expression and fostering an enriched sensibility.

 

Fine Arts in Lower Secondary Schools: To make student develop the ability of creative activities through the

aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby enjoying the pleasure of creative activities, cultivating an

appreciation of art, and fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.

 

2.Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools

Note:

1. One year has 34 weeks in 1^st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2^nd grade to 9^th grade.

2. There is 5.5 day-week-system. (In a month, 1^st and 3^rd week have 6 days. And 2^nd and 4^th week have 5

 days.) 25-29 school hours in elementary school and 30 school hours in lower secondary schools

3.One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. We have 2 school hours（90minutes）for

 Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.

4.One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7^th grade, we have 2 school hours

 （100minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8^th grade, we have 1-2 school hours（50-100minutes） for Fine

 Arts in a week. In 9^th grade, we have one school hour（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.

 

Table 3

Revised Course of Study officially announced in 1998 (the 7^th Course of Study)

 

1,Overall Objectives

 

Drawing and Handicrafts in elementary schools: To make student enjoy the pleasure of the aesthetic expression, cultivate the basic ability of creative activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby fostering an enriched sensibility.

 

Fine Arts in lower secondary Schools: To make student develop basic ability, enjoy the pleasure of creative

activities through the aesthetic expression and appreciation, thereby cultivating an appreciation of art, and

fostering an enriched sensibility in the fine art.

 

2,Standard Number of Yearly School Hours in Elementary Schools and Lower Secondary Schools

Note:

1. One year has 34 weeks in 1^st grade. One year has 35 weeks from 2^nd grade to 9^th grade.

2. There is five-day-week system. One week has 23-27 school hours in elementary school and 28 school

 hours in lower secondary schools

3.One school hour is defined as 45minutes in elementary schools. In 1^st grade and 2^nd grade, we have 2

 school hours（90minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 3^rd grade and 4^th grade, we have 1.7

 school hours（about 77minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week. In 5^th grade and 6^th grade, we have

 1.4 school hours（about 64minutes）for Drawing and Handicrafts in a week.

4. One school hour is defined as 50 minutes in lower secondary schools. In 7^th grade, we have 1.3 school  hours（about 64minutes）for Fine Arts in a week. In 8^th grade and 9^th grade, we have one school hour

（50minutes）for Fine Arts in a week.

 

 

3. Recent 25years in art education

 

3.1. From 1977(Showa 52nd) to 1988(Syowa 63rd)

 

    Japanese high-degree economic growth occupied the attention of the whole world

around 1980(Showa 55th). In those days, Japanese education reached a peak in system and

consciousness of the people 4). 94% of the students advanced to upper secondary school and

38% of students advanced to university. Junior high school Students rioted against teachers in

1980(Showa 55th). Since this time, there have been dangerous phenomena such as school

violence, autism, school refusal, bullying, escaping from study, or collapse of elementary

class. Centralism and standardization of education were criticized by Ad Hoc Council on

Education. This Council was established in 1984(Showa 59th). And it proposed that

educational system should introduce liberalization and individualization under private

management. This concept has been argued under educational ease of restrictions.

 

    Revised Course of Study was officially announced in 1977 (Showa 52nd). Playful Art

Study (Zoukei-asobi) was introduced in the lower grades of elementary school. Playful Art

Study has playing with materials, integrated expression by whole body and senses. This

activity emphasizes that students have desire to express themselves, so it can not be defined

such as painting, sculpture, design, craft and so on. The 4th Course of Study was framed

systematically, so introduction to Playful Art Study dramatically change the keynote of

Handicraft and Drawing. This change was forerunner of other subjects in School, because

Ministry of Education proposed new viewpoint of scholastic ability, studying independently

and establishing Life Environment Studies in the next Course of Study (1989).

 

    In the 7th Course of Study (1998), Playful Art was spread in all grades of elementary

school, because this study was in line with the new viewpoint of scholastic ability. In the

U.S.A., DBAE (Discipline -Based Art Education) proposed that art study as discipline should

survive in school art. In contrast, Japanese Ministry of Education and art teachers proposed

that art study as Playful Art should survive in school art. In Japanese art education history,

there are three trends centered on student as Table 4. Playful Art Study guarantees more

 

freedom for student than Free-Drawing Education (Non-drawing from a copy) in the latter

half of Taisho period (1918-1926) and Creative art education immediately after World War II.

Naka (2000), an art theory scholar, called this trend "super-creative art education",

guaranteeing more freedom of student 5). Kaneko (1998), an art education scholar, called this

period underway after 1977, "aesthetic art education period" 6).

 

    When we think alternative art education, a problem is how we grasp Playful Art that

took root in today's school. This is because that this activity overlaps with trends such as

mixed media and multimedia in contemporary Arts. They have the possibility to spread aesthetic expression and appreciation, but they bring us ambiguous contents and method in

art education. Because students live in the world of video information, it is difficult to select

expression and appreciation contents severely under the limited school hours.

 

    Some teachers had made objections against those trends and proposed distinct methods.

Matsumoto (1975) shows painting by using only three primary colors and Sakai (1989) shows simple method in drawing and composition and so on. Many young and middle-aged teachers support those methods. In the appreciation study, those teachers use analytic criticism introduced from the U.S.A. Teachers use analytic criticism in Japanese Language class at first, then they use it in art class 7).

 

    Since the period from the latter half of 1960's to the 1970's, teacher training Universities

have established graduate courses of art education. Tokyo Gakugei University established

such course in 1968 and Osaka Kyoiku Univerity in 1975. Researchers of art education were

 

rained in these courses and then they and their teachers established the Academic Society in

1982. These researches have introduced the thoughts and practices from the U.S.A. and

Germany and so on.

 

 

Table 4

Three art education trends centered on student

 

Name	Free-Drawing Education	Art education centered on Creative Imagination	Art Education based on  Playful Art Study
Period	The latter half of Taisho period (1918-1926)	From Showa 20's to 30's (1945-1964)	Heisei Period (1989-present)
Leading characters	Kanae Yamamoto (a painter)	Sadajiro Kubo (a critic) Tamiji Kitagawa (a painter)	Norio Nishino (the former examiner of school subject, Ministry of Education), Satoshi Itarashiki (the present examiner of school subject, Ministry of Education)
Keynote and feature	Non-drawing from a copy, private educational movement.	Introducing psychology in art education, expanding individuality, private educational movement.	Cognitive psychology, integrated art education based on Playful Art Study, leadership of Ministry of Education (Monbusho), the 6th and the 7th Course of Study.
Method	Drawing and painting, sketch of the view.	Drawing and painting, creative imagination.	Integrated expression, mixed media, installation art, relief and so on.

 

 

3.2.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 2001(Heisei 13th)

 

  3.2.1.From 1989(Heisei 1st) to 1997(Heisei 9th)

 

    The 6th Course of Study was officially announced in 1989 under the influence of

cognitive psychology and world educational reform 8). This Course of Study had appearances

of Life Environment Studies, slogan such as new viewpoint of scholastic ability and studying

independently. Playful Art Study was expanded in the middle grades of elementary school.

And appreciation study was emphasized in it under Curriculum Council Report (1987) 9).

 

    This report showed reformed point, that is, teacher should make students appreciate

international affairs, and cultivate attitude of respecting culture and tradition in their own

nation. The 6th Course of Study said that teachers have appreciation activities without

expression in the upper grades of elementary school, and have appreciation activities such as

art and human-being in lower secondary school.

 

    Art museums had started to stress on department of education and diffusion in the latter

half of1980's. They have introduced educational events such as gallery talk, worksheet,

workshop from America and Europe. These programs and educational resources had been

published since then 10). Study group of museum education was organized by researchers in

1991, and next year (1992) was peak in zest of museum education. International symposium

was held in Tokyo and Yokohama. The subject of the symposium was museum education in

Germany and other countries. After this, museums have tried to practice educational

programs and they have taken root throughout the country.

 

    The works, introduced to art world, have been published in the first half of 1990's. They

were published for general public, so these books didn't always need training in the art

history. There have been a calm boom of artistic appreciation since then 11). For children and

beginners, picture books of masterpieces and art history with Manga (carton) have been

edited and published by art history scholars 12).

 

    During this time, art education researchers have introduced to Japan new ideas such as

DBAE (Discipline-Based Art Education) and related thoughts. "Educating Artistic Vision" by

E. W. Eisner was translated into Japanese and published (1987) and W. D. Greer's idea was

interpreted in a Japanese art education journal 13). Teachers and researchers who had made

objections against Ministry of Education's policy, had quoted Eisner's Artistic Vision and

Greer's four disciplines. They had proposed distinct and rational methods survive art study in

school. These teachers didn't necessarily have approved Playful Art Study and some of them

had denied Playful Art strongly.

 

    But dispute over DBAE subjects was introduced at the same time. It is very important

for Japan and Asian countries to dispute about forcing the value of Western art on student

 

tacitly, and to consider standardized materials and teacher-proof curriculum.

 

  3.2.2.The period from 1998(Heisei 10th) to 2001(Heisei 13th)

 

    The 7th Course of Study was officially announced in December 1998 and had put into

effect in April 2002(In Japan, School year starts in April). Ministry of Education proposed

lifelong education society in the Course of Study and had introduced a five-day school week

since April 2002. Introducing some new studies and activities in the Course of Study, new

contents were tried by teachers in the transitional period from 1998 to 2001.

 

    Playful Art Study was spread in all grades of elementary school as previously stated.

And secondary school's Course of Study introduced new artistic expression such as Manga

(cartoon), illustration, photograph, video, computer graphics and so on. Appreciation study

pays attention to Asian art as Western art. There are multiple and various trends in art class

today. And Integrated Studies was newly introduced in elementary and secondary schools. In

this Studies, students are expected to study independently and seek to find the answer by

themselves. Each school is now struggling to obtain achievement in Integrated Studies.

 

 

Notes and References

 

1) Toku, Masami 1997. "Nichibei no bijutu kyoiku no hikaku (Comparison of Art Education in Japan and the

U.S.: Toward the 21st Century)", Art Education No.27, Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co., Japan, pp.75-76

 

2) Web site http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e4042.html

 

3) op.cit. Toku 1997. pp.76-83

 

4) Sato, Manabu 1996. Kyoiku houhou gaku ( Educational Methodology), Iwanami-syoten Publishing Co.,

  Japan.

 

5) Naka, Sadahiko 2000."Discipline ron no yukue (Discipline in Art Education)", Bijutu kyoiku no kadai to

 tenbou (Problems and Prospects in Art Education) (ed. by Keitoku, Minoru), Kenpaku-sha Publishing Co.,

Japan, p.3

 

6) Kaneko, Kazuo 1998. Bijutuka kyoiku no houhouron to rekishi (Method and History in Art Education),

Chuokoron-bijutu Publishing Co., Japan.

 

7) Matsumoto, Kimiko 1975. Sangen syoku no enogu bako (Three primary colors in painting box), Horupu

Publishing Co., Japan. Sakai, Shingo 1989. Sakai shiki byouga sidouhou nyumon ( Introduction to Sakai

method in drawing and painting), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan. Iwamoto, Yasuhiro 1990. Bunseki hihyou

 ni yoru meiga kansyou no jyugyou (Appreciating famous picture in art class: Appreciation by analytic

criticism method), Meiji-tosyo Publishing Co., Japan.

 

8) For example, Gardner, Howard 1983. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Basic Book

 Inc., New York, Gardner 1985. The Mind's New Science: A History of the Cognitive Revolution, Basic Book

Inc., New York, (It was translated into Japanese and published in 1987.)

 

9) Web site http://www.monbu.go.jp/aramashi/1997eng/e2043.html,

 

10) Tansei-research institute 1987. Hakubutukan bijutukan no kyoiku program (Museum worksheet: educational  program in museum). Japan. , Hokkaido Modern Art Museum 1989. Kaiga nyumon (Introduction to the appreciating picture: children and parents in museum), Shinchosya Publishing Co. Japan., Yamamoto, Ikuo  (ed.) 1992-present. DOME: Document of Museum Education, Nihon-Bunkyo Publishing Co., Japan.

 

11) Nishioka, Fumihiko 1992. Kaiga no mikata (Appreciation method of picture), Takarajima Publishing Co.

 Japan. , Amelia Arenas 1998. Naze kore ga art nano (Is This Art?: A Guide for Bewildered), Tanko-sya

 Publishing Co. Japan.

 

12) Nishimura, Kazuko (supervised by Tuji, Sigeru) 1992-present. Ohanashi meiga shirizu (Picture  book of  masterpiece), Hakugado Publishing Co., Japan. Takashina, Syuji （supervised） 1994. Manga seiyo bijutu shi

 (Western art history with Manga (cartoon)), Bijutu-syuppan Publishing Co. Japan.

 

13) Eisner, Elliot W. 1972. Educating Artistic Vision, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. New York. Greer, W.

Dwaine 1984. "Discipline-Based Art Education: Approaching Art as a Subject of Study",Studies in Art

 Education: A Journal of Issues and Research in Art Education 25(4), NAEA (National Art Education

Association), Virginia.( Research Readings for Discipline- based Art Education : A Journey Beyond Creating.

(ed. by Dobbs et al.) NAEA, Virginia, 1988), Parsons, Michel J. (1987); How we understand Art: Cognitive

developmental account of aesthetic experience, Cambridge Univ. Press., New York (It was translated into

Japanese and published in 1996)